The Various Mudras Of The Buddha (Indian Art & Culture- History)

 The Various Mudras Of The Buddha

1.Bhumisparsha Mudra

• One of the most common Mudras found in statues of Buddha.

• It depicts the Buddha sitting in meditation with his left hand, palm upright, in his lap, and his right hand touching the earth.

• The mudra is commonly associated with blue Buddha is known as "Akshobya".

• Significance: "Calling the Earth to Witness the Truth" and represents the moment of Buddha attaining enlightenment.

Fig: Bhumisparsha Mudra

2. Dhyana Mudra

• Indicates Meditation and is also called "Samadhi" or "Yoga Mudra".

• It depicts Buddha with both hands in the lap, back of the right hand resting on the palm of the left hand with fingers extended. In many statues, the thumbs of both hands are shown touching at the tips, thus forming a mystic triangle.

• It signifies the attainment of spiritual perfection.

• This Mudra was used by Buddha during the final meditation under the bodhi tree.

Fig: Dhyana Mudra

3. Vitraka Mudra

• It indicates teaching and discussion or intellectual debate.

• The tips of the thumb and index finger touch each other, forming a circle. The right hand is positioned at shoulder level and the left hand at the hip level, in the lap, with the palm facing upwards.

• It signifies the teaching phase of preaching in Buddhism. The circle formed by the thumb and index finger maintains the constant flow of energy, as there is no beginning or end, the only perfection.

Fig: Vitraka Mudra

4. Abhaya Mudra

• It indicates fearlessness and symbolizes strength and inner security.

• The right hand is raised to shoulder height with arms bent. The palm of the right-hand faces outwards and the fingers are upright and joined. The left-hand hangs downwards by the side of the body.

• This gesture was shown by Buddha immediately after attaining enlightenment.

Fig: Abhaya Mudra

5. Dharmachakra Mudra

• It means "Turning the Wheel of the Dharma or Law", i.e. setting into motion the wheel of Dharma.

• This Mudra involves both hands.

• The right hand is held at chest level with the palm facing outwards. A mystic circle is formed by joining the tips of the index and the thumb. The left hand is turned inward and the index finger and thumb of this hand are joined to touch the right hand's circle.

• This gesture was exhibited by Lord Buddha, while he prepared the first sermon to a companion after his enlightenment in the Deer Park of Sarnath.

Fig: Dharmachakra Mudra

6. Anjali Mudra

• This mudra signifies greetings, devotion, and adoration.

• Both hands close to the chest, palms, and fingers join against each other vertically.

• It is a common gesture used in India to greet people (Namaste). It signifies adoration of the superior and is considered a sign of regard with deep respect.

• It is believed that Buddhas (those who are enlightened) do not make this hand gesture and this gesture should not be shown in Buddhas' statues. This is for Bodhisattvas (who aim and prepare to attain perfect knowledge).

Fig: Anjali Mudra

7. Uttarabodhi Mudra

• It means supreme enlightenment.

• Holding both hands at the level of the chest, intertwining all the fingers except index fingers, extending index fingers straight up and touching each other.

• This mudra is known for charging one with energy. It symbolizes perfection.

• Shakhyamuni Buddha (liberator of Nagas) presents this mudra.

Fig: Uttarabodhi Mudra

8. Varada Mudra

• It indicates charity, compassion, and granting wishes.

• The right arm is extended in a natural position all the way down, with the palm of the open hand facing outwards towards onlookers. If standing, the arm is held slightly extended to the front. Can be a left-hand gesture as well.

• Through the five extended fingers, this Mudra signifies five perfections: Generosity, Morality, Patience, Effort, and Meditative Concentration.

Fig: Varada Mudra

9. Karana Mudra

• It indicates warding off evil.

• The hand is stretched out, either horizontally or vertically, with the palm forward. The thumb presses the folded two fingers but the index and little fingers are raised straight upwards.

• It signifies expelling demons and native energy. The energy created by this mudra helps remove obstacles such as sickness or negative thoughts.

Fig: Karana Mudra

10. Vajra Mudra

• It indicates knowledge.

• This mudra is better known in Korea and Japan.

• In this mudra, the erect forefinger of the left hand is held in the fist of the right hand. It is seen in the mirror-inverted form also.

• This mudra signifies the importance of knowledge or supreme wisdom. The forefinger represents knowledge, and the fist of the right hand protects it.

Fig: Vajra Mudra

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Prominent Ancient Ports of India

PROMINENT ANCIENT PORTS OF INDIA:

The naval trade with various countries during the ancient & medieval times played a great role in the spread of Indian culture abroad. The detailed account of the ports in ancient India can be found from the books "Periplus of the Erythraean Sea & Geographia". During Mauryan rule, the Navadhyaksha, i.e., Superitendent of Shipping used to look after the shipping administration. The coins of the last Satavahana King Yajna Sri Satakarni contained the figure of ships, probably indicating the naval strength of the dynasty. Let us look at an illustrative list of prominent port in ancient times.

Name of the Port	Region	Associated Dynasty & the Time Period	Brief Details
Lothal	Gujarat (near present Ahmedabad)	Indus Valley; 2400 BC	Export of copper, hardwoods, ivory, pearls, carnelian & gold to Mesopotamia and timber wood & Lais Lazuli to Sumeria
Barygaza	Present Bharuch in Gujarat	3rd Century BC onwards; Major trade center of Roman trade under Western Satraps	1. Spice & silk trade with Arabs.  2. Import of wheat, rice, sesame oil, cotton & cloth.
Muziris	Malabar Coast, Kerala (near present-day Kochi)	1st century BC onwards; Chera Kingdom	1. Mentioned in Sangam literature.  2. Export of spices, semi-precious stones like beryl, pearls, diamonds, sapphires, ivory, Chinese silk, Gangetic spikenard & tortoise shells to Persi, Rome, Greece & Egypt.
Kokai	Tamil Nadu	Early Pandyan Kingdom	Well known center of pearl fishery & finds mention in the Sangam literature.
Puhar (Kaveri Poompattinam)	Tamil Nadu (the mouth of Cauveri river)	Early Chola; 400 BC - 200 AD	1. Import of various articles. 2. Mentioned in "Silappadikaram".
Podouke	Present Arikmedu near Puducherry	2nd century BC - 8th century AD	1. Greek trading port to trade with Rome.  2. Items of export included gems, pearls, spices & silk. Import of wine was prevalent.
Barbarikon	Near Karachi, Pakistan	Parthians & Scythians	1. Import of lines, topaz, coral, strox, frankincense, vessels of glass, silver & gold plate & wine. 2. Export included turqoise, lapis lazuli, seric skins, cotton cloth, silk yarn & indigo.
Sounagora	Wari (Bateshwar in present Bangladesh)	450 BC; Maurayan dynasty	Mathematician Ptolemy mentioned in his book "Geographia"
Maisolia or Masulipatnam	Machilipatnam, Andhra Pradesh	From 3rd century BC onwards; Satavahana's dynasty	1. Muslin clothes were traded by ancient Greeks.  2. Principal sea port of the Golkonda kingdom from 15th to 17th centuries
Tamralipti	Present-day West Bengal	Mauryan dynasty	1. Exit point of the Mauryan trade route for the South & South-East.  2. Dudhpani rock inscription of Udayman of 8th century AD contains the last record of Tamralipti as a port of ancient South Asia.  3. Chinese pilgrim Hieun-Tsang call the town Tan-mo-lih-ti, who visited in 639 AD.  4. Fa-hian stayed here for 2 years.
Palur	Odisha	2nd century AD; Kalinga dynsaty	1. Place of voyage to South-East Asia & China and trade of pottery.    2. Mentioned by Ptolemy & Hiuen Tsang in the 2nd & 7th century AD.

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Indian Sculpture

INDIAN SCULPTURE:

Three prominent schools of sculpture developed in this period at three different regions of India- centered at Gandhara, Mathura, and Amravati.

Basis	Gandhara School (Kushana rulers)	Mathura School (Kushana rulers)	Amravati School (Satvahana rulers)
1. External Influence	Heavy influence of Greek or Hellenistic sculpture, so it is also known as Indo-Greek art.	It was developed indigenously & not influenced by external cultures.	It was developed indigenously & not influenced by external cultures.
2. Ingredients Used	Early Gandhara School used bluish-grey sandstone while the later period saw the use of mud & stucco.	The sculptures of Mathura School were made using spotted red sandstone.	The sculpture of Amravati School was made using white marbles.
3. Religious Influence	Mainly Buddhist imagery, influenced by the Greco-Roman pantheon.	Influence of all three religions of the time, i.e. Hindusim, Buddhism & Jainism.	Mainly Buddhist influence.
4. Area of Development	Developed in the North-West Frontier, in the modern-day of Kandhar.	Developed in & around Mathura, Sonkh & Kankalitila. Kankalitila was famous for Jain sculptures.	Developed in the Krishna-Godavari lower valley, in and around Amravati & Nagarjunakonda.
5. Features of Buddha Sculpture	1. The Buddha is shown in a spiritual state, with wavy hair. 2. He wears a few ornaments & seated in a yogi position. 3. The eyes are half-closed as in meditation. 4. A protuberance is shown on the head signifying the omniscience of Buddha.	1. Buddha is shown in a delighted mood with s smiling face. 2. The body symbolizes muscularity, wearing a tight dress. 3. The face and head are shaven. 4. Buddha is seated in padmasana with different mudras & his face reflects grace. A similar protuberance is shown on the head.	1. Since the sculptures are generally part of narrative art, there is less emphasis on the individual features of Buddha. 2. The sculptures generally depict life stories of Buddha & the Jataka tales, i.e., the previous lives of Buddha in both human & animal form.

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Freedom and Partition of India

FREEDOM & PARTITION OF INDIA

Attlee's Announcement: (Setting the time limit for British Withdrawl)

• Year: 20th February 1947

• As per the announcement, the British would withdraw from India by 30th June 1948.

• Wavell would be replaced by Lord Mountbatten as Viceroy.

• The power could be transferred to more than one authority if the Constituent Assembly did not become fully representative, i.e. if the Muslim majority provinces did not join the constituent assembly.

Mountbatten Plan:

• Year: 3rd June 1947

• It declared that the transfer of power would take place by 15th August on the basis of dominion status to two successor states, India & Pakistan if the Legislative Assemblies of Bengal & Punjab voted in favor of partition.

• It also provided for a referendum in the NWFP & Sylhet (Assam), and for setting up of a Boundary Commission.

• The Indian States would be free to join any dominion they liked, India or Pakistan.

Indian Independence Act, 1947:

• Year: 18th July 1947

• The Act was passed by the Labour government of Clement Attlee after the Indian leaders agreed on the Mountbatten Plan, the last Plan for Independence.

• The Bill was introduced with the objective of transferring power to the people of India & received Royal assent on 18th July 1947.

Among other things, the Act stated the following:

• Pending of the adoption of a new constitution.

• As from 15th August 1947, two independent Dominions shall be set up in India, to be known respectively as India & Pakistan.

• The boundaries between the two dominions shall be determined by Boundary Commission headed by Sir Cyril Radcliffe, hence also known as Radcliffe Commissions. 

• The existing Constituent Assembly of each Dominion would function as Dominion Legislature.

• Each Dominion shall be governed by the provisions of the Government of India Act, 1935.

• For each of the new dominion, a new Governor-General was to be appointed by the British-Crown. Further, the same person could be Governor-General of both (Mountbatten became the first Governor-General of free India & Jinnah the first Governor-General of Pakistan).

• The Office of the Secretary of State was abolished & his work was to be taken over by the Secretary of Commonwealth Affairs. 

• The words 'Emperor of India' & 'Indian Emperor' were dropped from the Royal style & titles.

Independence Day:

• Year: 15th August 1947

• India woke up to the dual reality of Independence & Partition.

• Jawaharlal Nehru was sworn in as the first Prime Minister of free India.

• Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel became the Home Minister.

• Thus, was a born a new nation, ending nearly 200 years of British rule in India.

Fig: Map of Partition of India

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Indian Constitutional Developement (1861-1920)

ACTS & IMPORTANT PROVISIONS

1861: THE INDIAN COUNCILS ACT, 1861

• The Governor-General's Executive Council was enlarged by the addition of a fifth member who was to be a jurist.

• For the purpose of the legislation, it enlarged the Central Council by addition of not less than 6 & not more than 12 additional members.

• There were to be nominated by the Governor-General & that at least half of them were to be non-officials. Under this provision, three Indians were usually nominated. Thus, it initiated a process of Indian association in legislation.

• The Act restored the legislative powers of the Councils of Bombay & Madras.

• The Act allowed the establishment of new Councils in other Provinces. Accordingly, Councils of Bengal (1862), North-Western Provinces (1886), and Burma & Punjab (1897) were established.

• Thus, it initiated recognition to issue ordinances in case of emergency.

• The Act provided for the decentralization of business. Using this authority, Lord Canning introduced the portfolio system in India for the first time, thus laying the foundation of the Cabinet System in India.

1892: THE INDIAN COUNCILS ACT, 1892

• In the Central Executive Council, the number of additional members was increased to not less than 10 and not more than 16. However, in the Centre as well as in provinces, the official majority was maintained.

• The Act empowered the Governor-General-in-Council to make regulations for the nomination of additional members. Under this provision, the Governor-General could introduce a half-hearted system of election (limited or indirect election), even as the provision itself very carefully avoided the use of the word "election".

• The introduction of the "elective principle", though veiled, was the as significant constitutional measure.

• The members of the Central Legislature were allowed to hold a discussion on the annual financial statement.

• Under the Act, many Indians entered the Councils. These included Pherozshah Mehta, Gopal Krishna Gokhle, WC Banerjee, Surendranath Banerjee, Ashutosh Mookerjee, Rash Behari Ghosh & Lalmohan Ghosh.

1909: MORLE-MINTO REFORMS, 1909

• The number of additional members was doubled or more than double and the maximum number in additional members in Governor-General's Council was raised to 60. 

• The Central Legislature was thus to comprise of 69 members.

• In the provinces, for the first time, a non-official majority was introduced.

• Of the 32 non-official seats, 5 were to be nominated by Governor-General while the remaining 27 were to be elected by the system of indirect election.

• It introduced the system of separate electorates for Muslims who were also given weightage, i.e. more seats were given to them than the number warranted by their proportion in the local population. They were also allowed to compete for seats to be elected by the general electorates.

• The member asking the original question was given the right to ask supplementary questions as well.

1919: MONTAGU-CHELMSFORD REFORMS, 1919

• The Act began with a Preamble based on the "Montagu Declaration" of 20 August 1917.

• The Secretary of State for India was now to be paid by the British Exchequer.

• Some of his functions were also taken away & given to the High Commissioner of India.

• In the Governor-General's Executive Council, three Indians would be included.

• Bicameral Legislative was established at the Centre namely, the Indian Legislative Assembly & the Council of State.

The Indian Legislative Assembly (Lower House):

• It was to consists of 145 members.
• The Act introduced the system of direct election for the first time.
• The system of communal electorate continued & was extended to Sikhs also.

The Council of State (Upper House):

• It was to consists of 60 members.
• The members were called "Honorable". Women were not allowed to become a member of the House.

• The right to ask supplementary questions was extended to all members of the legislature.

• The Governor-General was given the power of certification.

• Under the Act, Provincial Autonomy was introduced for the first time.

• The independent powers of the provinces were defined in the "Devolution Rules".

• Accordingly, two lists were drawn- The central list & Provincial list. Residual power was vested in the Governor-General-in Council.

• The system of Dyarchy was introduced in the provinces & the responsibility for certain subjects of the government was transferred to the Indian hands (Transferred list) while control over others was reserved in British hands (Reserved list).

• Governor acted as the link between two halves of the Executive.

• The instrument of Instructions was the document that laid down the basis of relations between the provincial governors & ministers.

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Quit India Movement

QUIT INDIA MOVEMENT:

1939: OUTBREAK OF WW-II

• September 1, 1939
• Viceroy Linlithgow unilaterally declared India as a belligerent state on the British side.

1939: CWC MEETING, WARDHA

• September 10th-14th, 1939
• Congress finally decided to adopt Nehru's view & extend conditional support to the British.

1939: VICEROY LINLITHGOW'S STATEMENT

• October 17th, 1939
• The British government refused to make any promises & commit itself in advance on the post-war constitutional status of India.
• Talked about setting up of a "consultative committee".

1939: CONGRESS MINISTERS RESIGN

• October 22nd, 1939
• Congress Ministers resign to protest against Britain's unilateral decision of dragging India into the war.
• Provincial governments continued in 4 provinces- Assam, Sindh, Punjab & Bengal.

1939: DAY OF DELIVERANCE

• December, 22nd 1939
• Muslim League celebrates "day of deliverance" upon the resignation of Congress Ministers.

1940: PAKISTAN RESOLUTION, LAHORE

• March 1940
• Muslim League passed the Pakistan Resolution calling the formation of Pakistan as a separate homeland for the Muslims.

1940: RAMGARH CONGRESS SESSION

• March 1940
• Presided by Maulana Abul Kalam Azad.
• A resolution was passed which declared that a civil disobedience movement shall be launched as soon as the Congress organization is considered fit enough for the purpose.
• A coalition of various Left-wing groups who got together & held an anti-compromise conference at Ramgarh under the leadership of Subhas Chandra Bose & resolved to prepare themselves for a militant struggle.

1940: AUGUST OFFER

• August, 8th 1940
• For the first time, the inherent right of Indians to frame their own constitution was recognized & the demand for Constituent Assembly was conceded.

1940: INDIVIDUAL STAYAGRAHA

• Acharya Vinoba Bhave became the First Satyagrahi.
• He was to deliver an anti-war speech village after village while moving in the direction of Delhi, thus initiating a movement that came to be known as the "Delhi Chalo" movement.
• Bhave delivered his first anti-war speech Paunar village near Wardha.
• Later, Jawaharlal Nehru became the second individual Satyagrahi.

1942: CRIPPS MISSION

• March 22nd, 1940
• In March, Japan occupied Rangoon bringing the war to India's doorstep which forced the British to send Cripps Mission to India.
• Prime Minister Winston Churchill sent the leader of the House of Commons, Sir Stafford Cripps, with the aim of securing India's active support in the war effort.
• Cripps declared that the aim of the new British policy in India was 'the earliest possible realization of self-government in India'.
• Proposed included- Dominion Status, Constituent Assembly, Right of Non-Accession of Provinces, Right of Secession of provinces, Protection of racial & linguistic minorities & British control over the defense.
• Gandhi rejected the proposals calling the Cripps offer for Dominion Status after the war as 'a poet dated cheque on a crashing bank'.
• Cripps adopted a 'take it or leave it' attitude which added to the deadlock.

1942: CWC MEETING AT WARDHA

• July 14th, 1942
• The CWC adopted the Quit India Resolution which was to be later ratified by the AICC in its Bombay meeting.

1942: QUIT INDIA MOVEMENT (QIM)

• August 18th, 1942
• AICC met at Gowalia Tank Maidan, Bombay & ratified the Quit India Resolution.
• The next day morning, all prominent leaders of the Congress, including Gandhi, were arrested.
• Hence what arose was a spontaneous movement that began taking its own course, with people directing their own actions.

1943: PAKISTAN DAY

• March 23rd, 1943
• Even as the QIM, continued the League observed the 'Pakistan Day' & also adopted a new slogan 'Divide & Quit'.

1944: RAJAGOPALACHARI FORMULA

• March, 1944
• It was the formula to bring about Congress-League Cooperation, accepting the 'idea of Pakistan' on the basis of a plebiscite or referendum after the war.
• The formula was developed with the full approval of Gandhi.

1945: DESAI-LIAQUAT PLAN

• June, 1945
• It proposed the formation of an Interim Government at the Centre, consisting of an equal number of persons nominated by the Congress & the League in the Central Legislature.

1945: CONGRESS LEADERS RELEASED FROM JAIL

• June 14th, 1945
• On 8th May 1945, the war in Europe ended with the surrender of Germany
• The Congress leaders were released from jail in anticipation of the Shimla Conference, making the official end of the Quit Indian Movement.

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